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在2010年以前，考研英语是不分考研英语一和考研英语二的，但并不意味着2010年以前的英语真题可以不用刷，每一年的真题都有自己的价值，而且真题价值的大小远超模拟。以下是2006考研英语翻译真题附答案解析的内容。
Directions:
Read the following text carefully and then translate the underlined segments into Chinese.Your translation should be written clearly on ANSWER SHEET2.(10points)
Is it true that the American intellectual is rejected and considered of no account in his society?I am going to suggest that it is not true.Father Bruckbergen told part of the story when he observed that it is the intellectuals who have rejected Americans.But they have done more than that.They have grown dissatisfied with the role of intellectual.It is they,not Americans,who have become anti-intellectual.
First,the object of our study pleads for definition.What is an intellectual?(46)I shall define him as an individual who has elected as his primary duty and pleasure in life the activity of thinking in Socratic(苏格拉底)way about moral problems.He explores such problem consciously,articulately,and frankly,first by asking factual questions,then by asking moral questions,finally by suggesting action which seems appropriate in the light of the factual and moral information which he has obtained.(47)His function is analogous to that of a judge,who must accept the obligation of revealing in as obvious a matter as possible the course of reasoning which led him to his decision.
This definition excludes many individuals usually referred to as intellectuals---the average scientist for one(48)I have excluded him because,while his accomplishments may contribute to the solution of moral problems,he has not been charged with the task of approaching any but the factual aspects of those problems.Like other human beings,he encounters moral issues even in everyday performance of his routine duties---he is not supposed to cook his experiments,manufacture evidence,or doctor his reports.(49)But his primary task is not to think about the moral code,which governs his activity,any more than a businessman is expected to dedicate his energies to an exploration of rules of conduct in business.During most of his walking life he will take his code for granted,as the businessman takes his ethics.
The definition also excludes the majority of factors,despite the fact that teaching has traditionally been the method whereby many intellectuals earn their living.(50)They may teach very well and more than earn their salaries,but most of them make little or no independent reflections on human problems which involve moral judgment.This description even fits the majority eminent scholars.Being learned in some branch of human knowledge in one thing,living in“public and industrious thoughts,”as Emerson would say,“is something else.”
46.I shall define him as an individual who has elected as his primary duty and pleasure in life the activity of thinking in Socratic(苏格拉底)way about moral problems.
翻译步骤分析
[词义推敲]步骤一、浏览语句，识别动词和代词含义
define…as…“把…定义为…”
elected as…“选择…作为…”
thinking in Socratic way about“用苏格拉底式的方式思考…”
them it遵循代词的指代原则，them指代“知识分子”
[结构分析]步骤二、浏览语句，断句
1、，and原则(用来区分并列句，句子中的and,or等并列连词要首先区分)(
I shall define him as an individual who has elected as his primary duty and pleasure in life the activity of thinking in Socratic(苏格拉底)way about moral problems.
2、which/that原则用来区分主句和从句，句子中的which,that,because,while,when等标志词区分主句和从句)
I shall define him as an individual
who has elected as his primary duty and pleasure in life the activity of thinking in Socratic(苏格拉底)way about moral problems.
3、较长不定式短语或介词短语原则(用来将单句中的不顶事短语和介词短语与主句区别对待，即恢复单句完整，理解短语功能)
I shall define him as an individual
who has elected the activity of thinking in Socratic(苏格拉底)way about moral problems.
as his primary duty and pleasure in life
这是一个复合句。I shall define him as an individual是主句。定语从句who has elected as his primary duty and pleasure in life the activity of thinking in Socratic(苏格拉底)way about moral problems用来修饰名词“individual”。该定语从句中构成“elect…as…”的结构。
[翻译润色]步骤三、单句翻译，准确排序
I shall define him as an individual我将知识分子定义这种个体：
who has elected the activity of thinking in Socratic(苏格拉底)way about moral problems.用苏格拉底式的方式思考对道德问题，
as his primary duty and pleasure in life并将此作为自己人生首要责任和快乐的人。
[参考译文]我将知识分子定义这种个体：用苏格拉底式的方式思考道德问题，并将此作为自己人生首要责任和人生乐趣。
47.His function is analogous to that of a judge,who must accept the obligation of revealing in as obvious a matter as possible the course of reasoning which led him to his decision.
翻译步骤分析
[词义推敲]步骤一、浏览语句，识别动词和代词含义
is analogous to“与…相似”
accept(the obligation of)“接受”在此意为“承担”
revealing“揭露”在此意为“揭示”
led him to his decision.“他自己得出结论”
[结构分析]步骤二、浏览语句，断句
1、，and原则(用来区分并列句，句子中的and,or等并列连词要首先区分)(
His function is analogous to that of a judge,who must accept the obligation of revealing in as obvious a matter as possible the course of reasoning which led him to his decision.
2、which/that原则用来区分主句和从句，句子中的which,that,because,while,when等标志词区分主句和从句)
His function is analogous to that of a judge
,who must accept the obligation of revealing in as obvious a matter as possible the course of reasoning
which led him to his decision.
3、较长不定式短语或介词短语原则(用来将单句中的不顶事短语和介词短语与主句区别对待，即恢复单句完整，理解短语功能)
His function is analogous to that of a judge
,who must accept the obligation of revealing the course of reasoning
in as obvious a matter as possible
which led him to his decision.
这是一个复合句。His function is analogous to that of a judge是主句。非限制性定语从句who must accept the obligation of revealing in as obvious a matter as possible the course of reasoning which led him to his decision用来修饰前文名词judge。在该定语从句中，which led him to his decision是定语从句，修饰名词短语“the course of reasoning”。
[翻译润色]步骤三、单句翻译，准确排序
His function is analogous to that of a judge他的职责与法官相似，
,who must accept the obligation of revealing the course of reasoning必须承担揭示推理过程的责任。
in as obvious a matter as possible用尽可能明了的方式
which led him to his decision.自己做出决定的
[参考译文]他的职责与法官相似，必须承担这样的责任：用尽可能明了的方式来展示自己做出决定的推理过程。
48.I have excluded him because,while his accomplishments may contribute to the solution of moral problems,he has not been charged with the task of approaching any but the factual aspects of those problems.
翻译步骤分析
[词义推敲]步骤一、浏览语句，识别动词和代词含义
excluded“排除在外”
contribute to“促成”
has not been charged with(the obligation)“被控告”在此意为“承担”
approaching(the factual aspect)“接近”在此意为“探究”
him遵循代词的指代原则，him指代“普通科学家”
[结构分析]步骤二、浏览语句，断句
1、，and原则(用来区分并列句，句子中的and,or等并列连词要首先区分)
I have excluded him because,while his accomplishments may contribute to the solution of moral problems
,he has not been charged with the task of approaching any but the factual aspects of those problems.
2、which/that原则(用来区分主句和从句，句子中的which,that,because,while,when等标志词区分主句和从句)
I have excluded him
because,while his accomplishments may contribute to the solution of moral problems
,he has not been charged with the task of approaching any but the factual aspects of those problems.
这是一个复合句。I have excluded him是主句。because,引导原因状语从句。在该原因状语从句中while his accomplishments may contribute to the solution of moral problems和he has not been charged with the task of approaching any but the factual aspects of those problems.构成让步关系的主、从句。
[翻译润色]步骤三、单句翻译，准确排序
I have excluded him我已经把普通科学家排除在外，
because,while his accomplishments may contribute to the solution of moral problems是因为尽管他的成果可能会有助于解决道德问题，
,he has not been charged with the task of approaching any but the factual aspects of those problems.但他承担的任务只不过是研究这些问题的事实方面。
[参考译文]我之所以把普通科学家排除在外，是因为尽管他的成果可能会有助于解决道德问题，但他承担的任务只不过是研究这些问题的事实方面。
49.But his primary task is not to think about the moral code,which governs his activity,any more than a businessman is expected to dedicate his energies to an exploration of rules of conduct in business.
翻译步骤分析
[词义推敲]步骤一、浏览语句，识别动词和代词含义
think about“思考，考虑”
governs his activity“管理”在此意为“支配”
is expected to“期望…”
dedicate his energies to“投身于…;专注于…”
[结构分析]步骤二、浏览语句，断句
1、，and原则(用来区分并列句，句子中的and,or等并列连词要首先区分)
But his primary task is not to think about the moral code,which governs his activity
,any more than a businessman is expected to dedicate his energies to an exploration of rules of conduct in business.
2、which/that原则(用来区分主句和从句，句子中的which,that,because,while,when等标志词区分主句和从句)
But his primary task is not to think about the moral code
,which governs his activity
,any more than a businessman is expected to dedicate his energies to an exploration of rules of conduct in business.
这是一个复合句。But his primary task is not to think about the moral code any more than a businessman is expected to dedicate his energies to an exploration of rules of conduct in business是主句，在该句子中体现了结构“not…any more than”，译为“不是…也不是”。非限制性定语从句which governs his activity用来修饰名词“moral code”。
[翻译润色]步骤三、单句翻译，准确排序
But his primary task is not to think about the moral code但是，他的首要任务并不是考虑道德规范，
,which governs his activity支配自己行为的
,any more than a businessman is expected to dedicate his energies to an exploration of rules of conduct in business.就如同不能指望商人专注于探索行业规范一样。
[参考译文]但是，他的首要任务并不是考虑支配自己行为的道德规范，就如同不能指望商人专注于探索行业规范一样。
50.They may teach very well and more than earn their salaries,but most of them make little or no independent reflections on human problems which involve moral judgment.
翻译步骤分析
[词义推敲]步骤一、浏览语句，识别动词和代词含义
teach“教”
earn their salaries“挣工资”
make little or no independent reflections on“很少或几乎没有独立思考”
involve(moral judgment)“包括”在此意为“需要(道德判断)”
[结构分析]步骤二、浏览语句，断句
1、，and原则(用来区分并列句，句子中的and,or等并列连词要首先区分)
They may teach very well and more than earn their salaries
,but most of them make little or no independent reflections on human problems which involve moral judgment.
2、which/that原则(用来区分主句和从句，句子中的which,that,because,while,when等标志词区分主句和从句)
They may teach very well and more than earn their salaries
,but most of them make little or no independent reflections on human problems which involve moral judgment.
这是一个并列句。They may teach very well and more than earn their salaries与but most of them make little or no independent reflections on human problems which involve moral judgment.构成并列关系。在but most of them make little or no independent reflections on human problems which involve moral judgment中，定语从句which involve moral judgment修饰名词“human problems”。
[翻译润色]步骤三、单句翻译，准确排序
They may teach very well and more than earn their salaries他们可以教得很好，而且不仅仅是为了挣薪水，
,but most of them make little or no independent reflections on human problems但他们大多数人却很少或没有对、人的问题进行独立思考。
which involve moral judgment.需要进行道德判断的
[参考译文]他们可以教得很好，而且不仅仅是为了挣薪水，但他们大多数人却很少或没有对需要进行道德判断的、人的问题进行独立思考。
参考译文
美国知识分子受到排斥，人们认为他们在社会中无关紧要，确实如此吗?这里指出的是情况并非那样。Father Bruchbergen让我们了解到部分真实情况。他指出是美国受到知识分子的排斥。然而，知识分子所做的还不止这些，他们对知识分子所发挥的作用日益感到不满。正是他们自己，而不是美国，成了反知识分子者。
首先，我们要对研究对象进行定义。什么是知识分子?我将知识分子定义为这样的人。他把用苏格拉底的方法思考道德问题作为自己的主要责任和人生乐趣。他有意识地、清楚坦诚地探索这一问题，首先针对一些事实问题提问，然后针对道德问题提问，最后根据已经获得的事实和道德信息提出一些看似合理的建议，建议人们如何行动。他的职责与法官相似，必须承担这样的责任：用尽可能明了的方式来展示自己做出决定的推理过程。
这一定义将许多通常被称为知识分子的人排除在外，那些普通科学家便是其中之一。我把普通科学家排除在外，是因为尽管他们的成就有助于解决道德问题，但却仅仅限于这些问题的事实方面，他们并未承担解决道德问题的任务。与其他人一样，他们会在完成自己的日常任务时遇到道德问题——他不应该伪造实验，捏造证据，修改实验报告。但是科学家的主要任务不是思考支配自己行为的道德准则，正如人们不会期待商人将精力投入到研究商业中的行为规范一样。普通科学家在大部分醒着的时日都会认为自己的道德准则理所当然，这和商人是一样的。
这个定义也将绝大多数教师排除在外，尽管从传统意义上来说，多数知识分子的谋生手段是教书。这些教师可能擅长教书，而且不仅仅专注于赚钱，但大多数人很少或者没有对涉及道德判断的人类问题进行独立思考。这种情况也适用大多数杰出学者。在人类知识的某一领域学识渊博是一回事，而：“对社会进行卓越的思考”(爱默生语)则是另一回事。
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Directions:
Read the following text carefully and then translate the underlined segments into Chinese.Your translation should be written clearly on ANSWER SHEET2.(10points)
Is it true that the American intellectual is rejected and considered of no account in his society?I am going to suggest that it is not true.Father Bruckbergen told part of the story when he observed that it is the intellectuals who have rejected Americans.But they have done more than that.They have grown dissatisfied with the role of intellectual.It is they,not Americans,who have become anti-intellectual.
First,the object of our study pleads for definition.What is an intellectual?(46)I shall define him as an individual who has elected as his primary duty and pleasure in life the activity of thinking in Socratic(苏格拉底)way about moral problems.He explores such problem consciously,articulately,and frankly,first by asking factual questions,then by asking moral questions,finally by suggesting action which seems appropriate in the light of the factual and moral information which he has obtained.(47)His function is analogous to that of a judge,who must accept the obligation of revealing in as obvious a matter as possible the course of reasoning which led him to his decision.
This definition excludes many individuals usually referred to as intellectuals---the average scientist for one(48)I have excluded him because,while his accomplishments may contribute to the solution of moral problems,he has not been charged with the task of approaching any but the factual aspects of those problems.Like other human beings,he encounters moral issues even in everyday performance of his routine duties---he is not supposed to cook his experiments,manufacture evidence,or doctor his reports.(49)But his primary task is not to think about the moral code,which governs his activity,any more than a businessman is expected to dedicate his energies to an exploration of rules of conduct in business.During most of his walking life he will take his code for granted,as the businessman takes his ethics.
The definition also excludes the majority of factors,despite the fact that teaching has traditionally been the method whereby many intellectuals earn their living.(50)They may teach very well and more than earn their salaries,but most of them make little or no independent reflections on human problems which involve moral judgment.This description even fits the majority eminent scholars.Being learned in some branch of human knowledge in one thing,living in“public and industrious thoughts,”as Emerson would say,“is something else.”
答案解析
46.I shall define him as an individual who has elected as his primary duty and pleasure in life the activity of thinking in Socratic(苏格拉底)way about moral problems.
翻译步骤分析
[词义推敲]步骤一、浏览语句，识别动词和代词含义
define…as…“把…定义为…”
elected as…“选择…作为…”
thinking in Socratic way about“用苏格拉底式的方式思考…”
them it遵循代词的指代原则，them指代“知识分子”
[结构分析]步骤二、浏览语句，断句
1、，and原则(用来区分并列句，句子中的and,or等并列连词要首先区分)(
I shall define him as an individual who has elected as his primary duty and pleasure in life the activity of thinking in Socratic(苏格拉底)way about moral problems.
2、which/that原则用来区分主句和从句，句子中的which,that,because,while,when等标志词区分主句和从句)
I shall define him as an individual
who has elected as his primary duty and pleasure in life the activity of thinking in Socratic(苏格拉底)way about moral problems.
3、较长不定式短语或介词短语原则(用来将单句中的不顶事短语和介词短语与主句区别对待，即恢复单句完整，理解短语功能)
I shall define him as an individual
who has elected the activity of thinking in Socratic(苏格拉底)way about moral problems.
as his primary duty and pleasure in life
这是一个复合句。I shall define him as an individual是主句。定语从句who has elected as his primary duty and pleasure in life the activity of thinking in Socratic(苏格拉底)way about moral problems用来修饰名词“individual”。该定语从句中构成“elect…as…”的结构。
[翻译润色]步骤三、单句翻译，准确排序
I shall define him as an individual我将知识分子定义这种个体：
who has elected the activity of thinking in Socratic(苏格拉底)way about moral problems.用苏格拉底式的方式思考对道德问题，
as his primary duty and pleasure in life并将此作为自己人生首要责任和快乐的人。
[参考译文]我将知识分子定义这种个体：用苏格拉底式的方式思考道德问题，并将此作为自己人生首要责任和人生乐趣。
47.His function is analogous to that of a judge,who must accept the obligation of revealing in as obvious a matter as possible the course of reasoning which led him to his decision.
翻译步骤分析
[词义推敲]步骤一、浏览语句，识别动词和代词含义
is analogous to“与…相似”
accept(the obligation of)“接受”在此意为“承担”
revealing“揭露”在此意为“揭示”
led him to his decision.“他自己得出结论”
[结构分析]步骤二、浏览语句，断句
1、，and原则(用来区分并列句，句子中的and,or等并列连词要首先区分)(
His function is analogous to that of a judge,who must accept the obligation of revealing in as obvious a matter as possible the course of reasoning which led him to his decision.
2、which/that原则用来区分主句和从句，句子中的which,that,because,while,when等标志词区分主句和从句)
His function is analogous to that of a judge
,who must accept the obligation of revealing in as obvious a matter as possible the course of reasoning
which led him to his decision.
3、较长不定式短语或介词短语原则(用来将单句中的不顶事短语和介词短语与主句区别对待，即恢复单句完整，理解短语功能)
His function is analogous to that of a judge
,who must accept the obligation of revealing the course of reasoning
in as obvious a matter as possible
which led him to his decision.
这是一个复合句。His function is analogous to that of a judge是主句。非限制性定语从句who must accept the obligation of revealing in as obvious a matter as possible the course of reasoning which led him to his decision用来修饰前文名词judge。在该定语从句中，which led him to his decision是定语从句，修饰名词短语“the course of reasoning”。
[翻译润色]步骤三、单句翻译，准确排序
His function is analogous to that of a judge他的职责与法官相似，
,who must accept the obligation of revealing the course of reasoning必须承担揭示推理过程的责任。
in as obvious a matter as possible用尽可能明了的方式
which led him to his decision.自己做出决定的
[参考译文]他的职责与法官相似，必须承担这样的责任：用尽可能明了的方式来展示自己做出决定的推理过程。
48.I have excluded him because,while his accomplishments may contribute to the solution of moral problems,he has not been charged with the task of approaching any but the factual aspects of those problems.
翻译步骤分析
[词义推敲]步骤一、浏览语句，识别动词和代词含义
excluded“排除在外”
contribute to“促成”
has not been charged with(the obligation)“被控告”在此意为“承担”
approaching(the factual aspect)“接近”在此意为“探究”
him遵循代词的指代原则，him指代“普通科学家”
[结构分析]步骤二、浏览语句，断句
1、，and原则(用来区分并列句，句子中的and,or等并列连词要首先区分)
I have excluded him because,while his accomplishments may contribute to the solution of moral problems
,he has not been charged with the task of approaching any but the factual aspects of those problems.
2、which/that原则(用来区分主句和从句，句子中的which,that,because,while,when等标志词区分主句和从句)
I have excluded him
because,while his accomplishments may contribute to the solution of moral problems
,he has not been charged with the task of approaching any but the factual aspects of those problems.
这是一个复合句。I have excluded him是主句。because,引导原因状语从句。在该原因状语从句中while his accomplishments may contribute to the solution of moral problems和he has not been charged with the task of approaching any but the factual aspects of those problems.构成让步关系的主、从句。
[翻译润色]步骤三、单句翻译，准确排序
I have excluded him我已经把普通科学家排除在外，
because,while his accomplishments may contribute to the solution of moral problems是因为尽管他的成果可能会有助于解决道德问题，
,he has not been charged with the task of approaching any but the factual aspects of those problems.但他承担的任务只不过是研究这些问题的事实方面。
[参考译文]我之所以把普通科学家排除在外，是因为尽管他的成果可能会有助于解决道德问题，但他承担的任务只不过是研究这些问题的事实方面。
49.But his primary task is not to think about the moral code,which governs his activity,any more than a businessman is expected to dedicate his energies to an exploration of rules of conduct in business.
翻译步骤分析
[词义推敲]步骤一、浏览语句，识别动词和代词含义
think about“思考，考虑”
governs his activity“管理”在此意为“支配”
is expected to“期望…”
dedicate his energies to“投身于…;专注于…”
[结构分析]步骤二、浏览语句，断句
1、，and原则(用来区分并列句，句子中的and,or等并列连词要首先区分)
But his primary task is not to think about the moral code,which governs his activity
,any more than a businessman is expected to dedicate his energies to an exploration of rules of conduct in business.
2、which/that原则(用来区分主句和从句，句子中的which,that,because,while,when等标志词区分主句和从句)
But his primary task is not to think about the moral code
,which governs his activity
,any more than a businessman is expected to dedicate his energies to an exploration of rules of conduct in business.
这是一个复合句。But his primary task is not to think about the moral code any more than a businessman is expected to dedicate his energies to an exploration of rules of conduct in business是主句，在该句子中体现了结构“not…any more than”，译为“不是…也不是”。非限制性定语从句which governs his activity用来修饰名词“moral code”。
[翻译润色]步骤三、单句翻译，准确排序
But his primary task is not to think about the moral code但是，他的首要任务并不是考虑道德规范，
,which governs his activity支配自己行为的
,any more than a businessman is expected to dedicate his energies to an exploration of rules of conduct in business.就如同不能指望商人专注于探索行业规范一样。
[参考译文]但是，他的首要任务并不是考虑支配自己行为的道德规范，就如同不能指望商人专注于探索行业规范一样。
50.They may teach very well and more than earn their salaries,but most of them make little or no independent reflections on human problems which involve moral judgment.
翻译步骤分析
[词义推敲]步骤一、浏览语句，识别动词和代词含义
teach“教”
earn their salaries“挣工资”
make little or no independent reflections on“很少或几乎没有独立思考”
involve(moral judgment)“包括”在此意为“需要(道德判断)”
[结构分析]步骤二、浏览语句，断句
1、，and原则(用来区分并列句，句子中的and,or等并列连词要首先区分)
They may teach very well and more than earn their salaries
,but most of them make little or no independent reflections on human problems which involve moral judgment.
2、which/that原则(用来区分主句和从句，句子中的which,that,because,while,when等标志词区分主句和从句)
They may teach very well and more than earn their salaries
,but most of them make little or no independent reflections on human problems which involve moral judgment.
这是一个并列句。They may teach very well and more than earn their salaries与but most of them make little or no independent reflections on human problems which involve moral judgment.构成并列关系。在but most of them make little or no independent reflections on human problems which involve moral judgment中，定语从句which involve moral judgment修饰名词“human problems”。
[翻译润色]步骤三、单句翻译，准确排序
They may teach very well and more than earn their salaries他们可以教得很好，而且不仅仅是为了挣薪水，
,but most of them make little or no independent reflections on human problems但他们大多数人却很少或没有对、人的问题进行独立思考。
which involve moral judgment.需要进行道德判断的
[参考译文]他们可以教得很好，而且不仅仅是为了挣薪水，但他们大多数人却很少或没有对需要进行道德判断的、人的问题进行独立思考。
参考译文
美国知识分子受到排斥，人们认为他们在社会中无关紧要，确实如此吗?这里指出的是情况并非那样。Father Bruchbergen让我们了解到部分真实情况。他指出是美国受到知识分子的排斥。然而，知识分子所做的还不止这些，他们对知识分子所发挥的作用日益感到不满。正是他们自己，而不是美国，成了反知识分子者。
首先，我们要对研究对象进行定义。什么是知识分子?我将知识分子定义为这样的人。他把用苏格拉底的方法思考道德问题作为自己的主要责任和人生乐趣。他有意识地、清楚坦诚地探索这一问题，首先针对一些事实问题提问，然后针对道德问题提问，最后根据已经获得的事实和道德信息提出一些看似合理的建议，建议人们如何行动。他的职责与法官相似，必须承担这样的责任：用尽可能明了的方式来展示自己做出决定的推理过程。
这一定义将许多通常被称为知识分子的人排除在外，那些普通科学家便是其中之一。我把普通科学家排除在外，是因为尽管他们的成就有助于解决道德问题，但却仅仅限于这些问题的事实方面，他们并未承担解决道德问题的任务。与其他人一样，他们会在完成自己的日常任务时遇到道德问题——他不应该伪造实验，捏造证据，修改实验报告。但是科学家的主要任务不是思考支配自己行为的道德准则，正如人们不会期待商人将精力投入到研究商业中的行为规范一样。普通科学家在大部分醒着的时日都会认为自己的道德准则理所当然，这和商人是一样的。
这个定义也将绝大多数教师排除在外，尽管从传统意义上来说，多数知识分子的谋生手段是教书。这些教师可能擅长教书，而且不仅仅专注于赚钱，但大多数人很少或者没有对涉及道德判断的人类问题进行独立思考。这种情况也适用大多数杰出学者。在人类知识的某一领域学识渊博是一回事，而：“对社会进行卓越的思考”(爱默生语)则是另一回事。
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